BPC-157: Angiogenic & Cytoprotective Properties in In-Vitro Models
Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology
·
Sikiric et al., 2018
BPC-157 (Body Protection Compound-157) is a pentadecapeptide derived from a gastric protein. In-vitro and animal model studies have demonstrated its angiogenic properties, including upregulation of VEGFR2 expression and promotion of endothelial cell migration. Research has also investigated its cytoprotective effects on gastrointestinal tissue at the cellular level, with consistent replication across multiple independent research groups.
Angiogenesis
Cytoprotection
VEGFR2
BPC-157: Tendon Outgrowth, Cell Survival and Musculoskeletal Repair
Journal of Applied Physiology
·
Chang et al., 2011
BPC-157 has been extensively researched for musculoskeletal repair mechanisms. Chang et al. demonstrated that BPC-157 promoted tendon healing through three parallel mechanisms: stimulation of tendon outgrowth, enhanced cell survival under oxidative stress, and accelerated tendon cell migration in scratch assay models. Rodent studies document significantly accelerated healing of Achilles tendon, quadriceps, and rotator cuff injuries, alongside upregulation of EGR1 and VEGF.
Tendon Repair
Cell Migration
EGR1 / VEGF
TB-500: Thymosin Beta-4 Fragment and Actin Dynamics in Cellular Repair Models
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
·
Philp et al., 2004
TB-500 is a synthetic peptide fragment of Thymosin Beta-4 corresponding to the actin-binding domain at amino acid positions 17–23. Research confirms this region as the primary G-actin sequestering domain of the parent molecule. In vitro studies demonstrate TB-500's role in promoting cell migration, stimulating angiogenesis through upregulation of VEGF, and reducing inflammatory markers in wound healing models.
Actin Sequestration
VEGF
Wound Healing
Follistatin 344: Myostatin Antagonism and Skeletal Muscle Hypertrophy in Preclinical Models
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
·
Lee & McPherron, 2001
Follistatin is a glycoprotein that functions as a potent antagonist of myostatin (GDF-8), a negative regulator of skeletal muscle mass. Lee and McPherron demonstrated that overexpression of follistatin in mice produced dramatic increases in muscle mass — up to 194% above wild-type — through dual inhibition of myostatin and activin signalling. The 344-amino acid isoform (FST-344) circulates systemically and has been the focus of preclinical research examining muscle fibre hypertrophy, satellite cell activation, and potential applications in muscle-wasting disease models.
Myostatin Inhibition
Muscle Hypertrophy
Activin Antagonism
Thymosin Beta-4: Actin Sequestration and Cellular Motility Research
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
·
Goldstein & Kleinman, 2015
Thymosin Beta-4 is a ubiquitous 43-amino acid peptide that plays a critical role in actin polymerisation and cellular motility. Laboratory studies have examined its role as an actin-sequestering peptide, with research focusing on its effects on cell migration, differentiation, and angiogenesis in controlled in-vitro environments.
Actin Dynamics
Cell Migration
Angiogenesis
NAD&sup+;: Therapeutic Potential of NAD-Boosting Molecules in Ageing and Cellular Energy Research
Cell Metabolism
·
Rajman, Chwalek & Sinclair, 2018
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD&sup+;) is an essential coenzyme central to cellular energy metabolism and a key substrate for sirtuin deacylases and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARPs). A landmark review catalogued in-vivo evidence demonstrating that restoring NAD&sup+; levels reverses multiple hallmarks of biological ageing in preclinical models. Research showed NAD&sup+; depletion associates with mitochondrial dysfunction and impaired DNA repair, while restoration activates sirtuins and promotes mitochondrial biogenesis.
Sirtuins
PARP
Mitochondrial Biogenesis
NAD+ Precursor Supplementation Improves Muscle Insulin Sensitivity in Human Participants
Science
·
Yoshino et al., 2021
The first human RCT demonstrating metabolic benefits of NAD+ precursor supplementation: 25 postmenopausal women with prediabetes received NMN for 10 weeks. NMN significantly increased skeletal muscle NAD+ levels, enhanced insulin sensitivity by hyperinsulinaemic-euglycaemic clamp, and upregulated muscle remodelling and mitochondrial genes. These findings in humans directly support the mechanistic role of NAD+ depletion in insulin resistance.
Human RCT
Insulin Sensitivity
Skeletal Muscle
Oral Glutathione Supplementation Elevates Tissue Stores and Reduces Oxidative Stress in Healthy Adults
European Journal of Nutrition
·
Richie et al., 2015
A six-month randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in 54 healthy adults showed oral glutathione at 250mg and 1,000mg/day produced dose-dependent blood glutathione increases of up to 35% across erythrocytes, lymphocytes, and plasma. The higher-dose group showed significant reduction in oxidised-to-reduced glutathione ratio — a validated oxidative stress marker — and a measurable decrease in skin melanin index.
Human RCT
Oxidative Stress
Bioavailability
CJC-1295: Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone Analogue Research
Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism
·
Teichman et al., 2006
CJC-1295 is a synthetic analogue of Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GHRH). Laboratory and controlled research studies have characterised its binding affinity to GHRH receptors and examined its pharmacokinetic profile in model systems, demonstrating sustained elevation of IGF-1 and growth hormone levels over 14 days — a dramatically extended duration compared to native GHRH.
GHRH Receptor
IGF-1
Pharmacokinetics
Ipamorelin: Selective GHS-R Agonist Binding and Receptor Specificity Studies
European Journal of Endocrinology
·
Raun et al., 1998
Ipamorelin is a pentapeptide growth hormone secretagogue and selective agonist of the GHS-R. Research characterised its receptor binding specificity and selectivity profile compared to other GH secretagogues, demonstrating that unlike GHRP-6, Ipamorelin stimulates GH release without significantly elevating cortisol or prolactin — a key selectivity advantage making it valuable in research models requiring isolated GH secretagogue activity.
GHS-R Agonist
Receptor Selectivity
No Cortisol Spike
CJC-1295 + Ipamorelin: Complementary GH Secretagogue Pathways and Pulsatile Release Research
Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism
·
Ionescu & Frohman, 2006
CJC-1295 and Ipamorelin represent two mechanistically distinct but complementary GH secretagogue pathways. CJC-1295 binds pituitary GHRH receptors to amplify GH pulse magnitude; Ipamorelin triggers GH release via the ghrelin receptor independently. Simultaneous activation of both pathways produces significantly greater physiologically natural GH output than either compound alone — the rationale underpinning their combination in research protocols.
GHRH Analogue
GHS-R
IGF-1
Tesamorelin: Significant Visceral Fat Reduction in Randomised Human Clinical Trial
New England Journal of Medicine
·
Falutz et al., 2007
A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in 412 adults demonstrated tesamorelin produced a 15.2% reduction in visceral adipose tissue vs 5.1% for placebo over 26 weeks. Participants also showed significant improvements in triglyceride levels, waist circumference, and quality-of-life scores. This robust human evidence supported FDA approval of tesamorelin (Egrifta) for excess abdominal fat in HIV-infected adults.
Human RCT
Visceral Fat
FDA Approved
GHRP-6: Cardioprotective Effects and GHS-R Expression in Cardiac Tissue
Regulatory Peptides
·
Granado et al., 2007
GHRP-6 (Growth Hormone Releasing Peptide-6) is a hexapeptide GHS-R agonist. Beyond its growth hormone releasing activity, Granado et al. demonstrated significant cardioprotective properties in rodent models: GHRP-6 reduced myocardial infarct size by up to 30% when administered prior to ischaemia-reperfusion injury, attenuated inflammatory cytokine release in cardiac tissue, and reduced cardiomyocyte apoptosis. The findings identified direct GHS-R expression in cardiac tissue as a potential target for cardioprotective research applications independent of GH axis modulation.
Cardioprotection
GHS-R
Ischaemia-Reperfusion
Tirzepatide: Dual GIP/GLP-1 Agonism and Up to 20.9% Weight Reduction — SURMOUNT-1
New England Journal of Medicine
·
Jastreboff et al., 2022
Tirzepatide is a unimolecular dual agonist targeting both GIP and GLP-1 receptors. The SURMOUNT-1 Phase 3 trial demonstrated mean weight reductions of up to 20.9% from baseline at the 15mg dose. Research revealed that simultaneous activation of both receptor pathways produces synergistic metabolic effects — significantly greater reductions in fasting insulin, triglycerides, and waist circumference compared with selective GLP-1 agonism alone.
Dual Agonist
SURMOUNT-1
GIP/GLP-1
Tirzepatide vs Semaglutide: Superior Glycaemic Control and Weight Reduction — SURPASS-2
New England Journal of Medicine
·
Frías et al., 2021
The SURPASS-2 trial enrolled 1,879 adults with type 2 diabetes comparing tirzepatide directly against semaglutide. All three tirzepatide doses produced greater reductions in HbA1c (up to −2.07% vs −1.86%) and body weight (up to −11.2 kg vs −5.7 kg). The 15mg arm achieved HbA1c below 5.7% in 27% of participants. Results established tirzepatide's superiority over the leading GLP-1 monotherapy for both metabolic control and fat reduction.
Human RCT
SURPASS-2
HbA1c Reduction
Semaglutide: 14.9% Mean Body Weight Reduction in Adults with Obesity — STEP 1 Trial
New England Journal of Medicine
·
Wilding et al., 2021
The STEP 1 Phase 3 trial evaluated once-weekly subcutaneous semaglutide 2.4mg in 1,961 adults with obesity. At 68 weeks, the semaglutide group achieved a mean 14.9% reduction in body weight vs 2.4% for placebo — with 86% of participants achieving ≥5% weight loss and 50% achieving ≥15%. The mechanistic basis is semaglutide's selective GLP-1 receptor agonism reducing appetite via central hypothalamic signalling, delaying gastric emptying, and improving pancreatic beta-cell function. These STEP 1 findings formed a key pillar of the regulatory approval of semaglutide (Wegovy) for chronic weight management.
GLP-1 Agonist
STEP 1
14.9% Weight Loss
Retatrutide: Triple GLP-1/GIP/Glucagon Receptor Agonism and 24.2% Weight Loss
New England Journal of Medicine
·
Jastreboff et al., 2023
Retatrutide is a unimolecular triple agonist targeting GLP-1, GIP, and glucagon receptors simultaneously. Phase 2 human research demonstrated mean weight reductions of up to 24.2% at 48 weeks — exceeding all previously published weight-loss interventions short of bariatric surgery. Secondary cardiometabolic endpoints showed reductions in waist circumference (up to 13.9 cm), systolic blood pressure, and triglycerides, alongside HbA1c reductions of up to 2.02 percentage points in the diabetic subgroup.
Triple Agonist
24.2% Weight Loss
Cardiometabolic
AOD-9604: Lipolytic Activity Without Diabetogenic Effect — Fat Metabolism Research
American Journal of Physiology — Endocrinology and Metabolism
·
Ng et al., 2000
AOD-9604 (Anti-Obesity Drug 9604) is a modified fragment of human growth hormone (hGH 176–191) designed to retain the lipolytic activity of full hGH without its diabetogenic or growth-promoting effects. Research by Ng et al. demonstrated that AOD-9604 stimulates lipolysis in adipocyte models and reduces fat accumulation in obese rodents through a mechanism involving beta-3 adrenergic receptor activation — independently of IGF-1. Subsequent human clinical investigation examined its effect on body composition and established a favourable safety and tolerability profile, supporting its use as a research tool for investigating selective fat metabolism pathways.
Lipolysis
hGH Fragment
No Diabetogenic Effect
MOTS-c: Mitochondrial-Derived Peptide Regulation of Metabolic Homeostasis and Insulin Sensitivity
Cell Metabolism
·
Lee et al., 2015
MOTS-c is a 16-amino acid peptide encoded within the mitochondrial genome. Lee et al. demonstrated exogenous MOTS-c significantly reduced obesity and improved insulin sensitivity in rodent models, acting on skeletal muscle via the AMPK pathway to enhance glucose uptake and fatty acid oxidation. Subsequent human research confirmed circulating MOTS-c declines with age and correlates positively with insulin sensitivity, VO²max, and markers of mitochondrial biogenesis.
Mitochondrial Peptide
AMPK
Insulin Sensitivity
GHK-Cu: Collagen Synthesis Stimulation and Tissue Remodelling Research
Journal of Peptide Science
·
Pickart & Margolina, 2018
GHK-Cu (glycyl-L-histidyl-L-lysine copper complex) is a naturally occurring tripeptide with strong affinity for copper ions. In vitro research characterised its role in stimulating collagen and glycosaminoglycan synthesis in dermal fibroblasts through TGF-β signalling activation. Additional findings confirm potent antioxidant activity and promotion of angiogenesis, establishing GHK-Cu as a widely studied compound in dermatological and tissue remodelling research.
Collagen Synthesis
TGF-β
Antioxidant
GHK-Cu Tripeptide Improves Collagen Density and Reduces MMP Activity in Human Skin
Journal of Investigative Dermatology
·
Simeon et al., 2000
Clinical and ex vivo evaluation of GHK-Cu on human skin demonstrated significantly increased type I and III collagen gene expression, proteoglycan synthesis, and dermal remodelling. Biopsies showed measurably increased collagen density and improved extracellular matrix organisation, with reductions in MMP activity that would otherwise degrade structural proteins. In photoaged skin participants, investigators reported significant improvements in skin thickness, firmness, and fine line depth.
Human Skin Biopsy
Collagen Density
MMP Reduction
Melanotan II: Melanocortin Receptor Subtype Selectivity and Melanogenesis in Cellular Models
Peptides
·
Wessells et al., 2003
Melanotan II is a cyclic heptapeptide analogue of alpha-MSH with potent agonist activity at MC1R, MC3R, MC4R, and MC5R. In vitro studies demonstrated significant stimulation of melanogenesis through the cAMP-PKA signalling cascade, producing dose-dependent increases in melanin synthesis in cultured melanocyte models. Its MC4R activity also triggered the research pathway that led to FDA-approved bremelanotide (Vyleesi).
Melanocortin Receptors
MC1R
cAMP-PKA
Phase I Human Trial: Melanotan II Produces Dose-Dependent Skin Tanning in Healthy Volunteers
Life Sciences
·
Dorr et al., 1996
The first clinical evaluation of MT-II in humans administered escalating doses to Fitzpatrick skin type I/II volunteers. All participants showed significant, objectively measured pigmentation increases within five days, with tanning observed in both sun-exposed and sun-protected areas — confirming a systemic melanogenic effect. This study established a well-tolerated dose range and, through unexpected observations, triggered the research programme that led to FDA-approved bremelanotide.
Phase I Human Trial
MC1R Activation
Eumelanin Synthesis
Afamelanotide Phase 3: Six-Fold Increase in Sun Exposure Tolerance — Clinically Approved
New England Journal of Medicine
·
Langendonk et al., 2015
A Phase 3 RCT in 74 patients with erythropoietic protoporphyria demonstrated afamelanotide produced a median six-fold increase in direct sunlight exposure tolerated vs placebo, alongside significant reductions in phototoxic pain. The mechanistic basis is potent stimulation of eumelanin synthesis providing a physical UV barrier. These results supported approval by the EMA (2014) and FDA (2019) of afamelanotide (Scenesse) for EPP.
Phase 3 RCT
EMA + FDA Approved
Eumelanin
Glutathione: Antioxidant Properties and Antimelanogenic Effects in Dermatological Research
Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dermatology
·
Weschawalit et al., 2017
A placebo-controlled trial characterised glutathione's dual mechanism in skin research: direct antioxidant neutralisation of reactive oxygen species, and tyrosinase enzyme pathway inhibition to reduce melanin synthesis. Subjects receiving glutathione showed statistically significant improvements in skin luminosity and reductions in UV-induced melanin index vs placebo, establishing a mechanistic basis for its investigation in pigmentation and photoprotective research.
Antioxidant
Tyrosinase Inhibition
Melanin
Selank: GABA-Ergic Modulation and Neurotrophic Factor Research
Neurochemical Journal
·
Semenova et al., 2010
Selank is a synthetic heptapeptide analogue of immunomodulatory peptide Tuftsin. In-vitro research has investigated its effects on GABA-ergic transmission mechanisms and its potential role in modulating Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) expression in cellular models. Research is conducted exclusively in controlled laboratory environments.
GABA-ergic
BDNF
Immunopeptide
Selank Demonstrates Anxiolytic and Cognitive Benefits Without Sedation in Human Patients
Journal of Neurology and Psychiatry (S.S. Korsakov)
·
Semenova et al., 2009
Clinical evaluation in patients with generalised anxiety disorder demonstrated significant reductions in anxiety scores, improved mood, and enhanced memory and attention vs controls. Unlike benzodiazepines, Selank produced its anxiolytic effects without sedation, dependency, or withdrawal symptoms. Selank is registered as a nootropic and anxiolytic pharmaceutical in Russia and Ukraine, supported by multiple human clinical studies.
Human Clinical Data
Anxiety Reduction
No Sedation
Semax: ACTH(4-10) Analogue Activity and BDNF/TrkB Modulation in Hippocampal Research
Brain Research
·
Dolotov et al., 2006
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide analogue of ACTH(4-7) with enhanced metabolic stability. Research demonstrated that Semax significantly upregulated both BDNF and TrkB receptor expression in the rat hippocampus, identifying a potential neuroprotective mechanism. Additional studies characterised improvements in learning, memory consolidation, and attention in controlled animal models. Semax holds regulatory status as a neuroprotective drug in Russia and Ukraine.
BDNF
Neuroprotection
ACTH Analogue
Semax Improves Attention and Processing Speed in Human Subjects Without Psychostimulant Side Effects
Neuroscience Research Communications
·
Kaplan et al., 1996
A human clinical study evaluated Semax across measures of selective attention, working memory, and information processing speed. Semax-treated participants demonstrated statistically significant improvements in attention task accuracy and processing speed vs control, without sedation, anxiolytic blunting, or psychostimulant tolerance. These human findings form part of the evidence base supporting Semax's registration as a licensed pharmaceutical in Russia and Ukraine for stroke, cognitive impairment, and traumatic brain injury.
Human Subjects
Attention & Memory
Licensed Pharmaceutical
Dihexa: HGF/MET Signalling, Synaptic Formation and Cognitive Enhancement in Rodent Models
Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics
·
McCoy et al., 2013
Dihexa (N-hexanoic-Tyr-Ile-(6) aminohexanoic amide) is a synthetic peptide derived from Angiotensin IV. McCoy et al. demonstrated that Dihexa potentiates hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) signalling at the MET receptor, promoting hippocampal synaptogenesis — the formation of new synaptic connections. In rodent cognitive models, Dihexa-treated animals displayed superior performance in spatial learning tasks and object recognition tests. Critically, Dihexa was reported to be approximately one million times more potent than BDNF in promoting synaptogenesis in hippocampal slice preparations, making it a potent research tool for neurodegenerative disease models.
HGF/MET Signalling
Synaptogenesis
Spatial Learning
Epithalon: Telomerase Activation and Cellular Senescence Studies
Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine
·
Khavinson et al., 2003
Epithalon (Epitalon) is a tetrapeptide (Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly) derived from pineal gland extract. Research has investigated its potential role in telomerase activation in somatic cells, with laboratory findings examining implications for cellular senescence models. All research is conducted under strict in-vitro conditions. Epithalon remains one of the most studied naturally-derived tetrapeptides in longevity research.
Telomerase
Cellular Senescence
Pineal Peptides
Circulating MOTS-c Declines with Age and Correlates with Metabolic Health in Humans
Aging (Albany NY)
·
Kim et al., 2019
Researchers characterised MOTS-c as a detectable peptide in human blood and demonstrated a significant age-dependent decline in older adults. Individuals with high metabolic fitness maintained significantly elevated plasma MOTS-c, with levels correlating positively with insulin sensitivity, VO²max, and mitochondrial biogenesis markers. An exercise intervention arm showed plasma MOTS-c rose measurably within 30 minutes — confirming mitochondria release MOTS-c as a systemic endocrine signal in response to physiological energetic demand.
Human Subjects
Exercise-Induced
Mitochondrial Ageing
SS-31: Mitochondrial Cardiolipin Targeting and Cardiac Function Improvement in Age-Related Disease
Journal of the American College of Cardiology
·
Daubert et al., 2017
SS-31 (Elamipretide) is a mitochondria-targeted tetrapeptide that selectively concentrates in the inner mitochondrial membrane and stabilises cardiolipin — a critical phospholipid for mitochondrial cristae structure and ATP synthase efficiency. The SERCA-HEART Phase 2 human trial in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) demonstrated that SS-31 significantly improved exercise tolerance (6-minute walk distance +21 m vs placebo) and reduced NT-proBNP levels. These findings in humans establish SS-31 as a mechanistically novel research compound targeting the mitochondrial dysfunction underlying age-related cardiac decline.
Cardiolipin
Human Phase 2
Mitochondrial Ageing
NAD+ Supplementation Increases Walking Speed and Improves Muscle Function in Older Adults
Nature Aging
·
Igarashi et al., 2022
A 12-week randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in older adults administered NMN (250mg/day). NMN significantly increased blood NAD+ levels, and in participants who exercised regularly, significantly improved gait speed, grip strength, and performance on the 30-second chair stand test. Gene expression analysis showed upregulation of muscle remodelling pathways and mitochondrial function genes. These findings in humans confirm NAD+ supplementation translates preclinical longevity findings into measurable functional improvements in ageing skeletal muscle.
Human RCT
Muscle Function
Healthy Ageing
Triple–Hormone-Receptor Agonist Retatrutide for Obesity
New England Journal of Medicine
·
Jastreboff et al., 2023
A 48-week randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 2 trial of retatrutide, an agonist of the GIP, GLP-1 and glucagon receptors, in adults with obesity. The highest dose (12 mg once weekly) produced a mean body-weight reduction of 24.2%, with dose-dependent improvements in blood pressure, HbA1c and lipid parameters. These reductions exceeded those previously reported for single- and dual-receptor agonists at the time of publication.
Triple Agonist
Body Weight
Phase 2 RCT
Tirzepatide Once Weekly for the Treatment of Obesity (SURMOUNT-1)
New England Journal of Medicine
·
Jastreboff et al., 2022
A phase 3, double-blind, randomised controlled trial of 2,539 adults with obesity assigned to once-weekly tirzepatide (a dual GIP/GLP-1 receptor agonist) or placebo for 72 weeks. Mean weight reduction reached 20.9% at the 15 mg dose versus 3.1% with placebo, and roughly 9 in 10 participants on tirzepatide lost weight. The trial established dual-incretin agonism as a benchmark for pharmacological weight management.
Dual GIP/GLP-1
Phase 3 RCT
72 Weeks
Prolonged Stimulation of GH and IGF-I Secretion by CJC-1295 in Healthy Adults
J. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism
·
Teichman et al., 2006
Randomised, placebo-controlled, double-blind ascending-dose trials of CJC-1295, a long-acting GHRH analogue, in healthy adults. Single subcutaneous doses raised mean plasma growth hormone 2- to 10-fold for six days or more and IGF-I 1.5- to 3-fold for 9–11 days; repeated dosing sustained IGF-I above baseline for up to 28 days. The compound was well tolerated at 30–60 µg/kg.
GHRH Analogue
IGF-I
Human RCT
Metabolic Effects of a Growth Hormone–Releasing Factor in Patients with HIV
New England Journal of Medicine
·
Falutz et al., 2007
A phase 3 randomised placebo-controlled trial of tesamorelin, a GHRH analogue, in patients with HIV-associated abdominal fat accumulation. Daily subcutaneous tesamorelin significantly reduced visceral adipose tissue relative to placebo while largely sparing subcutaneous fat, with favourable effects on triglycerides. Discontinuation led to re-accumulation, indicating the effect is treatment-dependent.
GHRH Analogue
Visceral Fat
Human RCT
The Promoting Effect of Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 on Tendon Healing
J. Applied Physiology
·
Chang et al., 2011
An in-vitro and animal study of BPC-157 on cultured tendon fibroblasts (tenocytes). BPC-157 significantly accelerated the outgrowth of tendon explants, increased cell survival under stress, and enhanced fibroblast migration in a dose-dependent manner. Microarray analysis identified upregulation of the growth-hormone receptor, offering a candidate mechanism for the compound's documented tendon-repair effects.
Tendon Fibroblasts
Cell Migration
GH Receptor
BPC 157 Accelerates Healing of Transected Rat Achilles Tendon
J. Orthopaedic Research
·
Staresinic et al., 2003
A controlled rat model in which the Achilles tendon was fully transected and treated with BPC-157 or saline. BPC-157-treated animals showed significantly faster functional recovery and improved biomechanical and histological healing of the tendon. This is among the foundational preclinical studies establishing BPC-157's musculoskeletal repair profile.
Achilles Tendon
Biomechanics
Animal Model
Thymosin β4 Accelerates Wound Healing
J. Investigative Dermatology
·
Malinda et al., 1999
In a rat full-thickness wound model, thymosin β4 (the parent molecule of TB-500) applied topically or intraperitoneally increased re-epithelialisation by 42% at four days and up to 61% at seven days versus saline controls. Treated wounds also showed increased collagen deposition and angiogenesis, consistent with the peptide's actin-regulating, pro-migratory mechanism.
Re-epithelialisation
Angiogenesis
Animal Model
MOTS-c Regulates Plasma Metabolites and Enhances Insulin Sensitivity
Physiological Reports
·
Kim et al., 2019
A study of the mitochondrial-derived peptide MOTS-c, a 16-amino-acid peptide encoded by mitochondrial DNA. MOTS-c injection improved whole-body insulin sensitivity by roughly 30% during hyperinsulinaemic clamp and reduced sphingolipid, monoacylglycerol and dicarboxylate metabolic pathways that are elevated in obesity and type-2 diabetes models, acting largely through AMPK activation in skeletal muscle.
Mitochondrial Peptide
AMPK
Insulin Sensitivity
Regenerative and Protective Actions of the GHK-Cu Peptide in Light of New Gene Data
Int. J. Molecular Sciences
·
Pickart & Margolina, 2018
A review of gene-expression data for the copper tripeptide GHK-Cu, a plasma peptide that declines with age. Broad transcriptomic analyses indicate GHK-Cu modulates the expression of a large number of human genes, resetting many toward a healthier state, and stimulates collagen and decorin synthesis in fibroblasts at nanomolar concentrations. The peptide also supports angiogenesis, nerve outgrowth and antioxidant defence.
Gene Modulation
Collagen Synthesis
Copper Peptide
GHK-Cu May Prevent Oxidative Stress in Skin by Regulating Copper and Antioxidant Genes
Cosmetics
·
Pickart et al., 2015
An analysis of GHK-Cu's role in skin protection, showing the peptide binds and regulates copper and modifies expression of numerous antioxidant genes. By supporting collagen and glycosaminoglycan production while reducing oxidative stress, GHK-Cu is characterised as a regenerative signal for ageing skin — the mechanistic basis for its widespread use in dermal research.
Antioxidant Genes
Skin Renewal
Copper Regulation
Afamelanotide for Erythropoietic Protoporphyria
New England Journal of Medicine
·
Langendonk et al., 2015
Two randomised placebo-controlled trials (168 patients) of afamelanotide, an α-melanocyte-stimulating-hormone (α-MSH) analogue from the same melanocortin family as Melanotan compounds. Subcutaneous implants increased eumelanin-based photoprotection, significantly extending pain-free sunlight exposure and reducing phototoxic reactions, with improved quality of life. Adverse events were mostly mild.
Melanocortin Agonist
Melanogenesis
Human RCT
Glutathione as an Oral Whitening Agent: A Randomised, Placebo-Controlled Study
J. Dermatological Treatment
·
Arjinpathana & Asawanonda, 2012
A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in which participants taking 500 mg/day of oral glutathione showed significantly lower melanin indices in sun-exposed skin (face and wrists) than placebo over the study period, with a favourable safety profile. The finding supports glutathione's role as a systemic antioxidant that shifts melanogenesis toward lighter pheomelanin.
Melanin Index
Antioxidant
Human RCT
Semax Increases Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Protein in Rat Basal Forebrain
Journal of Neurochemistry
·
Dolotov et al., 2006
A rat study showing that Semax, a synthetic ACTH(4–10) analogue, binds to specific high-affinity sites in the basal forebrain and, following intranasal dosing (50–250 µg/kg), rapidly increases BDNF protein within three hours. This provides protein-level confirmation of Semax engaging the BDNF–TrkB neurotrophic signalling axis that underlies its documented cognitive effects.
BDNF
TrkB Signalling
Neurotrophic
Peptide Anxiolytic Selank in Generalised Anxiety Disorder and Neurasthenia
Zh. Nevrologii i Psikhiatrii
·
Zozulya et al., 2008
A comparative clinical trial of 62 patients with generalised anxiety disorder and neurasthenia, comparing Selank (a tuftsin-derived heptapeptide) against the benzodiazepine medazepam. Selank produced anxiolytic efficacy comparable to medazepam on the Hamilton and Zung scales, with additional antiasthenic effects and without the sedation or dependence liability associated with benzodiazepines.
Anxiolytic
GABAergic
Human Clinical
MOTS-c Is an Exercise-Induced Regulator of Age-Dependent Physical Decline
Nature Communications
·
Reynolds et al., 2021
A study demonstrating that the mitochondrial-derived peptide MOTS-c is induced by exercise and regulates muscle homeostasis and age-dependent physical decline. In aged mice, MOTS-c treatment improved physical capacity and running performance, and the peptide translocated to the nucleus to regulate stress-adaptive genes — positioning it as a mitochondrial signal linking exercise to healthy ageing.
Exercise Mimetic
Physical Capacity
Healthy Ageing
Evaluation of Melanotan-II, a Superpotent Cyclic Melanotropic Peptide: Pilot Phase-I Study
Life Sciences
·
Dorr et al., 1996
A single-blind, placebo-controlled phase-I study in which subcutaneous Melanotan-II, a synthetic α-MSH analogue, produced measurable increases in skin pigmentation — quantified by reflectance spectroscopy — in volunteers after only five low every-other-day doses. The study established that MT-II activates melanocortin receptors to stimulate melanogenesis in humans, with mild transient nausea the principal reported effect.
Melanogenesis
Melanocortin
Human Phase 1
Ipamorelin, the First Selective Growth Hormone Secretagogue
European Journal of Endocrinology
·
Raun et al., 1998
The foundational pharmacology study characterising ipamorelin, a pentapeptide ghrelin-receptor agonist. Ipamorelin stimulated growth-hormone release with potency comparable to GHRP-6, but — uniquely among secretagogues of its era — did not raise ACTH or cortisol above GHRH-stimulated levels even at 200-fold the GH ED50, establishing its distinctive selective GH-releasing profile.
GH Secretagogue
Ghrelin Receptor
Selectivity
Nicotinamide Mononucleotide Increases Muscle Insulin Sensitivity in Prediabetic Women
Science
·
Yoshino et al., 2021
A 10-week randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of oral NMN (250 mg/day), a direct NAD+ precursor, in postmenopausal women with prediabetes. NMN raised NAD+ metabolites in skeletal muscle and improved muscle insulin sensitivity by approximately 25%, with enhanced insulin signalling and muscle remodelling — the first human evidence of a metabolic benefit from NMN supplementation.
NAD+ Precursor
Insulin Sensitivity
Human RCT
